Wild Animal Planet

How can a midge manages to beat its wings 1,000 times a second?
How does a flea leap hundreds of times its own height?
Why does a butterfly fly forwards when its wings beat up and down?

The flight muscles of many insects such as the locust and dragonfly contract powerfully as a result of stimuli emitted by the nerves that control their every movement. In the locust, for example, signals sent by each nerve cause the flight muscles to contract. By working alternately, not against each another, two complementary groups of muscles, the so-called elevators and depressors, allow the wings to rise up and beat down. Locusts beat their wings 12 to 15 times a second, and in order to be able to fly smaller insects must beat theirs even more rapidly. Honeybees, wasps and flies beat their wings from 200 to 400 times a second, and in midges and some parasites only 1 millimeter (0.03 inch) in size, that rate rises to an astounding 1,000 times a second! Wings beating too fast for the human eye to see have been created with a special structure in order to exhibit such sustained performance.

A nerve is able to send at most 200 signals a second. Then how can a small insect able to beat its wings 1,000 times a second? Research has established that in these insects, there is no one-to-one relationship between signals from the nerves and frequency of wing beats.

Bluebottle flies beat their wings 200 times a second, but their nerve and muscle structures are very different from those of locusts. Only one signal comes from the nerve for every 10 wing beats. In addition, these so-called “fibrous muscles” work very differently compared to locusts. Nerve impulses regulate only the muscles’ preparations for flight. Once the muscles achieve a specific tension, they contract of their own accord.

In these special systems, created independently in the body of every insect, there is not the slightest irregularity. Their nerves never emit an incorrect signal, and the insects’ muscles always interpret them correctly.

In such species as flies and bees, the muscles that allow flight are not even attached to the wing base! Instead, they attach to the chest by joints that serve as a kind of hinge, while the muscles that lift the wing upwards are attached to the upper and lower surfaces of the chest. When these muscles are contracted, the chest surface flattens and draws the wing base down. The lateral surface of the wing provides a support function and permits the wings to rise. The muscles establishing downward movement are not attached directly to the wing, but operate along the length of the chest. When these muscles are contracted, the chest is retracted in the opposite direction, and the wings are thus drawn downwards.

The wing joint is formed of a special protein known as resilin, which possesses superb elasticity. Since its features are far superior to those of natural or synthetic rubber, chemical engineers are trying to reproduce this substance, in laboratories. In flexing and contracting, resilin is able to store almost all of the energy exerted on it; and when the force pressing on it is lifted, it is able to give back all that energy.

As a result, resilin is up to 96% efficient. During wing lift, some 85% of the energy expended is stored for later; this same energy is then re-used in the downward movement that provides lift and propels the insect forward. Its chest walls and muscles have been created with a special structure to make possible this accumulation of energy. However, the energy is actually stored in the joints consisting of resilin.


For smooth flight, straight up-and-down wing movement alone is not sufficient.. In order to be able to provide lift and propulsive force, the wings must also have to change their angle of motion during every beat. Insects’ wings possess a particular rotational flexibility, depending on the species, which is provided by their so-called direct flight muscles (or DFMs, for short) that produce the forces needed for flight.

When insects seek to climb higher in the air, they increase their wing angle by contracting still further these muscles between the wing joints. Fast-frame and stop-motion photographs have shown that during flight, the wings follow an elliptical course and that for each wing’s cycle, its angle alters systematically. This variation is caused by the changing movements of the direct muscles and the wings’ attachment to the body.

The greatest problem faced by very small insect species during flight is air resistance. For them, sheer air density becomes an obstacle for these creatures that can’t be underestimated. Moreover, a restrictive layer around the wing causes the air to cling to the wings, leading to a loss in flight efficiency. In order to be able to overcome that air resistance, flies such as Forcipomya, whose wings are no more than 1 millimeter wide, must beat them 1,000 times a second.

Scientists believe that theoretically, even this speed is insufficient to keep these insects aloft, and that they must employ some other additional system. In fact, Anarsia, a kind of parasite, makes use of a method known as “beat and shake.” When its wings reach the highest point in their lift, they strike against each another and then open down again. As the wings, with their string vein, open the front air current first sets up a vortex around the wings and assist with the wing beat lift force.

Many species of insects, the locusts included, take note of visual data such as the line of the horizon to determine their direction of flight and eventual destination. For determining their position, flies have been created with an even more extraordinary structure. . These insects have only a single pair of wings, but to the rear of each, there is a knob-shaped lobe known as the halter. Although the halters produce no lift force, they vibrate together with the front wings. When the fly changes its direction of flight, these wing extensions prevent it from deviating off course.

All the information provided here results from studies into the flight techniques of just three or four insect species. Bear in mind that the total number of insect species on Earth is around 10 million.

A Solution to Venous Disorders from the Flea Gene

Scientists have succeeded in separating out the resilin gene from fruit flies and managed to reproduce this protein naturally by injecting the gene into a Escherichia coli bacteria.

In the course of one study carried out by the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), scientists who succeeded in identifying the gene that produces insects’ resilin also identified a powerful polymer that may prove useful in the treatment of vein diseases. Studies that began in the 1960s, concentrating on the desert locust and dragonfly, were a powerful factor in advancing this most important step.

Resilin, which also gives fleas the ability to make their enormous leaps, gives these and other insects an astonishing capability of movement. Thanks to this substance, fleas are able to jump many hundreds of times their own height and some flies are able to beat their wings over 200 times a second.

The protein obtained from resilin is far better than the highest-quality rubber products in its ability to resist pressure and revert to its former shape. Continuing experiments on artificial resilin show that the protein still maintains these features.

Scientists state their belief that the polymer obtained from cloning insects’ genes can be employed in a variety of very different fields, from medicine to industry. But perhaps the most important of these applications will be treating arterial disease in humans. Because resilin resembles the protein elastin in human veins, scientists hope that their studies will endow veins with renewed elasticity.

The British Professor Roger Greenhalgh states that “This research [into resilin] seems to be at a very early stage, but if we could take something good out of the elasticity of the flea that benefits humans, that would be most impressive.”1

References:

"Synthesis and properties of cross linked recombinant pro-resilin,"; by Christopher M. Elvin, Andrew G. Carr, Mickey G. Huson, Jane M. Maxwell, Roger D. Pearson, Tony Vuocolo, Nancy E. Liyou, Darren C. C. Wong, David J. Merritt and Nicholas E. Dixon, Nature 437, 999-1002 (13 October 2005) | doi: 10.1038/nature04085; "Flea protein may repair arteries" BBC News, October 12, 2005

About The Author Under the pen name of Harun Yahya, Adnan Oktar has written some 250 works. His books contain a total of 46,000 pages and 31,500 illustrations. Of these books, 7,000 pages and 6,000 illustrations deal with the collapse of the Theory of Evolution. You can read, free of charge, all the books Adnan Oktar has written under the pen name Harun Yahya on these websites http://www.harunyahya.com

Easter Chicks, Ducklings, and Rabbits

It is traditional to buy cute little chicks, ducklings, and bunnies as gifts for children around Easter time. Nothing wrong with that – so long as you keep in mind that these cute baby animals will grow up and live through many more Easter holidays, requiring care – food, space, and time.

The easy solution, is not to buy a live animal at all, but one of the wonderful plush toys instead. In general, giving a live pet as a gift is a poor idea. If it is for your own child, consider the animals needs as far as care and whether or not you are able and willing to provide for it. If it is for someone else’s child, consult with the parents first about whether they would welcome a new addition to the family.

However, if you do have the time, space, love and money to care for a new little member of the family and are willing to take the responsibility of doing so, here are a few care tips to give you a start.

Chicks and Ducklings

Baby chickens and baby ducks have similar needs. For the first few weeks baby birds need almost constant monitoring. For this reason, a slightly older chick is probably a better choice. The caretakers where you purchase your baby bird should know about how old they are.

Warmth – Baby chicks and ducklings need to be kept warm. Depending on the climate in your location, it will probably be a few weeks before they can be kept outdoors. Baby chicks need to be kept at 95 degrees the first week of their life, 90 the next, and so on, going down 5 degrees per week until they are 4-5 weeks old and fully feathered out. The idea source of heat is a red heat bulb, and you’ll want a thermometer in their cage.

Food – Baby chicks have special needs as far as food, and the same is true for ducklings. No, they don’t eat the same food. You will want to make sure you can purchase the proper feed for your pets, either where you purchased the pets, or at a local feed store. The local feed store will have a proper commercial feed for baby chicks and ducklings – but some do not keep it in stock past Easter. You will want to ask if they keep it in stock, and if not, purchase enough to keep your chicks or ducklings fed until they can switch to an adult feed.

You will also want to purchase a proper chick feeder. They will lose food tossed into their bedding, and tend to soil food in an open bowl as well as waste quite a bit as they peck through it.

Water – Don’t plan on sticking any old bowl in the pen for chicks or ducklings. Baby birds need clean water. Baby birds also have a tendency to soil their water by walking through it, pooping in it, and throwing bedding into it. You will want to purchase a chick waterer from the feed or pet store. It will be built to keep the soiling to a minimum, but for the first four weeks or so you will have to check the waterer several times a day and provide fresh, clean water as often as necessary. When the chicks are a couple of weeks old, they will probably be big enough for you to set the waterer on a flat board or brick in the pen to elevate it from floor level (the water should be at the same level as the backs of the chicks) which will cut down on the mess a bit.

Shelter – For the first few weeks, a cardboard box with ventilation holes and sides at least 12 inches high will do fine as a home for your chicks or ducklings. A round container, such as a kiddie pool is better, as chicks and ducklings might tend to “pile” in corners and suffocate the bottom birds. Plan on giving them about 2 foot of space per baby bird. This sounds like a lot when they are 2 days old, but they are going to grow!

You will also need bedding. Wood shavings, such as the type sold packaged for small animal bedding, is the best. Plan on changing it every few days depending on the size of their pen.

When they are about 4 to 5 weeks old and fully feathered, they can move outdoors (weather permitting). They will then need a coop of some sort, and a pen to roam.

Company – Chickens and Ducks are flock animals. You don’t have to buy more than one, but they will be much happier in the long run if you do.

Chicks and ducklings do, however, offer a very special reward for your tender, loving care. Last years Easter chicks will be laying eggs for this Easter’s celebration!

Chickens and Ducks live for ten to fifteen years, and the females will lay eggs from about 5 months of age to approximately five years of age. Some will lay for a much longer time, although not as much as in their younger days.

Of course, Easter chicks and ducklings are not divided by sex, which means you will have males – roosters or drakes – as well as females. In the case of the male ducks, this isn’t much of a problem. But we all know about roosters, don’t we? At about the same time the hens start to lay, the roosters will start to crow. If you live in town, this can be an issue with the neighbors – not to mention the family. Not everyone thinks we ought to jump up out of bed at 3 am – but your rooster will.

In years past, the dye used to color chicks and ducklings often caused them to sick and die a few days after the holiday. This is no longer true, as a different process is used to dye the chicks and ducklings.

This is only a very basic outline of needs for chicks and ducklings. I strongly suggest you either purchase a book for their care, or at least check one out of the library.

If someone just dropped by your house and presented your child with a chick or duckling for Easter (it happens) – set them up with a cardboard box bedded with shavings or newspaper, a light for warmth (be aware of fire hazards and be sure it is out of the chicks reach), a bowl with fresh water, and get to the nearest feed or pet store for a waterer, feed and a feeder, a proper heat light bulb, thermometer, bedding, and a book on care.

There is of course, the possibility that you can keep the baby birds for a few months or weeks, and then place them with someone who wants chickens or ducks and has the facilities to care for them. If you want to do this – that’s great – but I would make sure you have the arrangement made in advance. Depending on where you live, it may not be all that easy to find someone who wants them.

Easter Bunny

Aren’t those baby Easter bunnies just the cutest? Sure they are! But they grow up into rabbits, and may live over ten years. They do not need quite so much intensive care as babies as the birds do, but their needs in the long run may prove more expensive.

And they don’t really lay eggs, you know. ;)

Rabbits do make wonderful pets. However, they are not typically good pets for children, especially young children. If you are prepared and want to add a rabbit to your family, there’s certainly nothing wrong with deciding to do it just in time for Easter. If someone just dropped by and handed your child an Easter bunny (a live one), you might have a bit of a problem! Yes, it happens.

Fortunately, most pet stores now carry all the things your new pet will need for his or her health and happiness. Basic needs for rabbits are the same as for all pets – shelter, food, and water.

In the case of a bunny, you will first want to decide if he or she is going to live indoors or outdoors. Domestic rabbits are not as hardy as their wild relatives. A pet rabbit really should live indoors, with or without run of the house. An outbuilding, such as a shed or garage is not ideal – ventilation and temperature must be considered, as well as whether other animals are able to get into the building. A rabbit can actually die of fear from the presence of a predator animal – such as the family dog. A caged rabbit will still need at least few hours a day of playtime a day in a larger area.

Indoors or out, you will still need to purchase a cage, or hutch. Even an indoor rabbit should have a cage for their own security and for times when you may need to confine them. A rabbits cage should be at least five times the size of the rabbit. In the case of a baby rabbit, you’ll either want to buy a cage based on his adult size, or plan on buying larger cages as she grows. Your rabbit should be able to stretch out and lay down, and their head should not touch the top of the cage when they stand.

Depending on the type of cage you purchase, you will also need bedding. Cages with wire floors are very common – but also hard on little bunny feet. If you purchase this type of cage, you should layer some cardboard over the wire to make it more comfortable for your bunny.

When you purchase the cage, keep in mind the type of feeder and waterer you plan to use. The best feeders and waterers are those that fit onto the cage in such a way that they remain clean and sanitary. Thus it is probably easiest to purchase the cage, feeder, and waterer at the same time and place. Most pet stores and feed stores will have all of those items available for you.

Your rabbit will also appreciate a place to hide – or have a little privacy. A simple cardboard box with a door cut into that fits in the cage is fine, or you can buy something fancier if you wish.

Commercial feed, as well as treats, are readily available for rabbits these days. However, these foods should be considered supplemental to hay (timothy hay, or grass hay is better for rabbits than alfalfa), and dark, green leafy vegetables. As with any pet, fresh food and water should be provided daily.

If you are keeping the rabbit indoors and giving them the run of the house, you can train them to use a litter box. You will want to make sure you have “bunny proofed” the house. Rabbits chew – a curious nibble of an electrical cord could have terrible consequences.

Rabbits are social animals. Even if you, or your child, spends lots of time keeping bunny company – they would be happier with another bunny friend. Consider adopting two bunnies rather than one. They will be happier for it.

As with chicks, you will find numerous books and resources on the web concerning rabbit care. This is only a very basic outline. You'll have much to learn!

Although I mentioned that with chicks and ducklings you might consider keeping them only until they are grown if you can make arrangements for a new home for adult chickens or ducks – this is less of an option with Easter bunnies. If you are purchasing a bunny, please plan on keeping it for it’s own life span. If someone just surprised you with a gift bunny, and you cannot or do not want to keep it, you will find many rabbit rescue groups listed online. Many local shelters also have facilities for rabbits.

Pets are really not suitable surprise gifts for anyone at any time. This goes for Easter chicks, Easter ducklings, and Easter bunnies. They are all cute babies, but they grow up and live from ten to fifteen years. They have needs and require suitable care.

I hope you didn’t buy one on impulse, but if you did, I hope you will go on now to see that it receives proper care. If someone “surprised” you (or your child) with an Easter bunny or chick, I hope you will either step up to the responsibility (and perhaps be surprised by how rewarding they are!) or take the proper steps to find them a good home. And if, best of all, you decided months ago to add some chickens, ducks, or rabbits to your family and thought you’d wait until Easter to buy them and take them home, where their cage and hay, or heat lamp and feed are all ready and waiting for them – yay you, enjoy the new additions to your family!

About The Author Summer Fey Foovay is an artist, writer, and webdesigner and webmaster of Animal Nerd: http://animal-nerd.demented-pixie.com She has been involved in animal care since childhood, often professionally. You can find more of her work at http://demented-pixie.com

Animals have various miraculous features and each one of them is a miracle of creation. One of these animals is the koala. The koala feeding on eucalyptus leaves has various splendid features that ensure a comfortable life for it on trees.

The bodily design of the koala, a native of Australia, has flawless details that it needs in the kind of environment it lives. For instance, its limbs and claws ensure an easy climb to eucalyptus tress with wide trunks. The two fingers in its forepaws are separate from its other three fingers. When compared with the human hand, it can be said that the koala has two thumbs. These thumbs, which are quite different from other fingers, allows the koala to grip more securely.

Four of the limbs of the koala, with its claws that can stick into the soft and smooth trunks of trees like a hook, grasp tree branches with ease as if we grasp a stick, and render a comfortable climb for the koala. However, the features, of the koala, are not limited to these. Here are some of them:

A Miniature Bio-chemical Plant

Eucalyptus leaves have a very high fiber and low protein content. These leaves are rich in strong odorous oil, phenolic combinations and materials similar to cyanide that are inedible and even poisonous for many mammals. These materials, which are poisonous for other animals, lose their poisonous effect when it comes to the koala’s body, for the koala is equipped with a digestive system having a very special anatomy and physiology.

Just as in the case of other herbivorous mammals, the koala cannot digest cellulose, the major component of eucalyptus. However, this task is accomplished by cellulose-digesting microorganisms in the cecum of the koala.

The koala’s cecum, which is quite long, opens to large intestine. Indeed, the cecum makes up 20% of the total intestine. Its length is 1.3m long. (Hume, I. D. (1999). Marsupial nutrition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)

The cecum is the most interesting part of the koala’s digestive system. The access of the leaves to the digestive system is delayed right at this point. Thanks to this delay, the microorganisms in the cecum transform the cellulose into a structure from which the koala can benefit. With this structure, the koala’s cecum can be likened to a bio-chemical plant. While cellulose is being treated in this plant, oil and phenolic combinations, which are poisonous chemicals, are rendered ineffective in the liver.

As is known, the unique food of the koala is eucalyptus leaves. This means, the animal meets its carbohydrate requirements entirely by cellulose digested by microorganisms. In the absence of microorganisms, it is obvious that the koala cannot survive.



The Koala and the Balance of Water

In the language of Aborigines, the Australian natives, the word “koala” means “the one who does not drink water.” Indeed, the koala does not drink water, for it feeds entirely on eucalyptus leaves.

The eucalyptus leaves has a water content of around 40% to 65%. This ratio never drops below 40%. Because plants with less than 40% water content dry up and die. Thanks to this feature, eucalyptus leaves provide the necessary amount of water to the koala.

No doubt, this feature of the leaves is not sufficient alone. The koala’s body structure utilizing the water in the eucalyptus leaves is extremely important.

The system in the kidneys that checks water loss of the koala’s body has A flawless design. Yet, what is more important is the fact that the digestive system of the koala has the feature of holding water. This way, only a small amount of the water is thrown out from the koala’s body.

Thanks to the kind of digestive system that can hold water, the koala can rely on excess amounts of leaves that do not contain high amounts of water. If the digestive system of the koala lacked this feature, then the animal had to be down on earth, being in a constant search for water. This means, the animal, which lacks proper features to survive anywhere except for trees, had to face many threats. However, thanks to its special bodily structure, the koala never meets such difficulties.

The Koala’s Protective Fur

The main factor that determines the koala’s body temperature is its fur. The fur is created in a way to ensure perfect heat insulation:

The intensity of feathers in the fur may reach around 55 feathers per square millimeter. The fur in the back of the animal covers 77% of the body surface. The feathers on the stomach, on the other hand, are only half as intensive as the back fur, and it covers only 13% of the body surface.

The length of feathers changes from season to season. In summertime, the difference between long feathers and short ones become even more.

The thick fur on the back is darker than the loose ones on the stomach; this way, the koala collects and insulates the sun’s heat. Despite the loose stomach feathers, the koala can adjust the grade of insulation by steepening them.

On windy days, the koalas on trees give only their middle-backs against the wind, and they curl-up into the shape of a ball. As the intensity of the wind increases, they bend their ears forward. This way, none of their limbs becomes vulnerable to the air stream. The back fur of the koala has the highest grade of insulation. It’s insulation is very close to the grade of insulation of the animals living in the Northern Pole.

The wind has only a weak effect upon this strong fur on the back of the animal. Under heavy wind, the fur can maintain a constant body temperature. Indeed, even on very cold days and under heavy winds, the fur’s heat protection capacity drops only by 14%. Such data indicates that for an animal living on the top branches of trees in forests, they are ensured a perfect protection against cold.

The koala’s metabolism rate is also regulated in a way to complement the heat insulation of the fur. The metabolism of the koala is quite slow; it is only 74% of other animals’ metabolism rate. With such a slow rate, the animal also has a low water loss.

The Koala is a Great Deadlock for Evolutionists…

Let’s remember the features of the koala:

- The koala has a body structure that helps it to easily climb trees and live a comfortable life there.

- Thanks to the special design of its digestive system, the koala can get enough food and water from the eucalyptus leaves they find in ample amounts.

- It has a physiological system that eliminates the poisonous effects of eucalyptus oils.

- It has a metabolism that ensures maximum use of water taken from leaves.

All of these features are required for the survival of an animal such as the koala that lives on trees.

About The Author Under the pen name of Harun Yahya, Adnan Oktar has written some 250 works. His books contain a total of 46,000 pages and 31,500 illustrations. Of these books, 7,000 pages and 6,000 illustrations deal with the collapse of the Theory of Evolution. You can read, free of charge, all the books Adnan Oktar has written under the pen name Harun Yahya on these websites http://www.harunyahya.com

There are approximately ten thousand different species of birds, many of which have miraculous characteristics. Wherever we live, we may encounter many of these creatures and can admire the different aspects of each variety. They exhibit countless examples of the evidence of creation, through their aesthetic appearance, their perfect flying mechanisms, their expertise in migration and their nest-making skills.

Some birds distinguish themselves by their superior intelligence and special talents. These particular species are defined as birds that can imitate sounds, include the parrots, songbirds, and hummingbirds. Many of us have heard about, seen on television or even personally witnessed these birds’ ability to talk.

The Special Design which Enables Birds to Produce Sound

Talking, or even imitating sound, is not just a simple matter of opening and closing the mouth, as some people believe. A complex system is required for this action to take place, and all parts of this system must be synchronized in perfect working order. Birds with a talent for sound mimicry enjoy all of these requirements and demonstrate their ability in extraordinary ways.

Some of these species have a talent rarely found in any other creature except man. The best example of this are parrots, which can imitate, in addition to human speech, a wide range of sounds that even humans can’t duplicate convincingly—for example, as the creaking of a door, the cap being removed from a bottle, a ringing telephone, or a tune being whistled. This talent to imitate, observable in parrots and some other bird species, is not an ability that can be acquired by coincidence. For any living creature to imitate a sound it has heard, it needs to have complex physiological structures already in place. Particularly in the case of birds that can closely imitate the human voice in terms of tone, stress and expression, these structures must be very sophisticated.

For a bird to reproduce a word or a melody it has heard, it needs to have an appropriate physical structure. Its sense of hearing must be functioning perfectly, and it must be able to memorize the information received by the senses and the ability to conceptualize meaning in its own terms.

People are astonished the first time they hear a parrot say Hello! when the phone rings, ask Who is it? when the doorbell rings, or greet someone familiar by name. But even though it’s an astonishing achievement for a bird to say even one word, many don’t really give it due consideration. Over time, they may even come to see it as normal and commonplace.

Not only does the bird see and recognize the person approaching; what’s more, the bird knows how to react to a person it knows. It remembers and reproduces words it associates with that person. This is evident proof that the bird has an accurate memory. If we consider that some species of birds seem to understand questions they are asked and give a seemingly logical answer, the issue becomes even more complex. One important example of this is a trained grey parrot by the name of Alex. When he’s presented with a red (rose) piece of paper and asked What color? he answers rose.

The Physical Formation of Sound in Birds

You might assume that in order for a parrot to be able to imitate the human voice to use a person’s same spoken words, stresses and pronunciation they must possess a larynx whose structure is similar to a human’s. However, the structure of the human larynx bears no resemblance to these creatures’ physical structures. The larynx, vocal cords, tongue, lips, palate and teeth that humans use in speech are completely different in birds, and some do not exist at all. But even though all birds lack these structures, still these species can reproduce phrases spoken by humans and in the same tones. If we consider that a person without a tongue is unable to speak or that we lose our voice if the vocal cords are damaged, it’s also worth considering that parrots, budgerigars, and mynahs, members of the crow family, have completely different physical characteristics which nevertheless enable them to talk in the same way as humans.

There are other differences between the systems that humans and birds use to produce vocal sounds. We produce most sounds by expelling air from the lungs through the larynx. Different sounds are created, according to the degree of vibration of the vocal cords. The position of the tongue and lips and the flow of air through the mouth or nasal cavity are only a few of the many other factors affecting sound production. The pharynx, found in humans, lets the tongue divide the vocal tract above the larynx into two cavities with their own distinct resonances. Where these resonances occur, the overtones of the frequencies (or number of vibrations) from the vocal cords are amplified. Formants (from the Latin formare: to shape, or form) are resonant frequencies of the vocal tract, the natural shapes that air assumes in the vocal passage. When you make a consonant, for example, this has an effect on the formants of the neighbouring vowels, raising or lowering formants as the vowel sound gets closer to the corsonant. Experiments have shown that two formants are sufficient in order to differentiate speech sounds from each other.

Birds have no larynx similar to a human’s, but do have a special vocal organ, known as the syrinx, that enables them to produce sounds. In birds, air from the lungs passes through this organ. In a sense, the bird’s syrinx is the equivalent of our human larynx. One of the principal differences is that in humans, our vocal cords are positioned closer to the windpipe. So far, the fact that the bird’s syrinx is deep inside the body has prevented scientists from obtaining a complete answer as to how birds produce sound. Scientists have filmed birds using infra-red and x-ray cameras, and have made close studies of their song and speech by means of fiber-optic microscopes inserted in their throats. Yet we still cannot explain the physical process by which birds produce song and imitate sounds.

Within the bird’s breast, its vocal organ is like a branched instrument, located at where its voice box meets the two bronchial tubes. As shown on in the picture, one branch of the syrinx opens into one bronchus and the second branch into the other; and either one of these two bronchi can produce sound. Some birds can use either both sides of their voice organ simultaneously, or one of the two independently and, by this means, can produce two separate tones of the same frequency, at the same time. They can sing a high note with one side, while producing a low note with the other. And since the bird’s vocal organ is situated at the juncture of the two bronchial tubes, it can produce sound from two different sources. This even allows the bird to produce two different notes simultaneously, and even to sing a duet with itself. To a great extent, sounds produced here are subsequently combined, giving birds the potential of creating rich melodies. While humans use only about 2% of the air they inhale to produce sound, birds have the ability to use it all.

The syrinx is located in a pouch within the clavicle below the bird’s throat. The membrane covering this pouch is sensitive to the air coming from the lungs, and its elasticity and complexity of the membrane are factors that determine the quality of sounds. The sound quality is also affected by the length of the windpipe, the constriction of the voice box, the neck muscles, structure of the beak, and their respective movements. In short, the complexity of the birds’ syrinx determines the complexity of the sounds they produce. Its muscles affect the air flow and consequently, the quality of the sound. In parrots, budgerigars, and some songbirds, the syrinx has a greater number of muscles, and its structure is more complex.

Furthermore, the different techniques that parrots and budgerigars employ for imitating the human voice are most effective. Like humans, parrots have thick tongues that enable them to produce sounds resembling ours. Sound is produced by blowing air through two separate places in their syrinx, and at the same time producing the independent sounds required to produce consonants. The initial sound from the syrinx is shaped with the help of the throat, and then in the mouth with the tongue. In their research studies with grey parrots, Dianne Patterson and Irene Pepperberg reached important conclusions on vowel production: Due to the radically different anatomy of this parrot’s vocal organ, even though they lack teeth and lips, they can produce sounds that closely resemble sounds produced by humans. Indeed, parrots and budgerigars can quite clearly imitate sounds such as m and b, which we normally produce with the help of our lips.

Budgerigars, however, due to their small size, are not able to use the same technique as parrots. Using their syrinx to create frequencies from 2,000 to 3,000 Hz, they then add on a second vibration. This system is known as frequency modulation or FM, the principle behind the AM (amplitude modulation) radios to be found in practically every home. These days, many FM broadcasting stations add low transmitters to their signals which, in common with normal signals, are adjustable through a transmitter, but are of a very high frequency. While the frequency of normal signals varies from 20 to 20,000 Hz, the frequency of many low transmitters starts at 56,000 Hz. The main reason for using the FM system is to offset the major disadvantage of the AM system—namely, the interference of many natural or man-made radio sounds, called “parasites.” Because the weak signals of AM radio are quieter than the stronger ones, differences in signal level are formed, which are then perceived as noise. AM receivers have no facility for cutting out these parasitic sounds.

To solve this problem, Edwin H. Armstrong invented a system for eliminating noise caused by the power of the waves. Instead of changing the transmission signal or the strength of the transmitter, he changed the frequency of sound waves per second. Thanks to this system, the amplitude of noise (strength of sound waves) could be reduced to a minimum. But scientists are still mystified how budgerigars manage to use this same system.

Most humans, with their far superior intelligence, have difficulty in imitating other voices or speech while these little birds are able to imitate many sounds they have heard with perfection, showing how exceptionally skilled they are. Scientific research has concluded that this perfect mechanism in birds is a masterpiece of design.

1- Irene Maxine Pepperberg, The Alex Studies, Harvard University Press, England, 1999, pp. 46-47.
2- http://www.linguistlist.org/~ask-ling/archive-1997.10/msg01480.html
3- http://www.eeb.uconn.edu/courses/Ornithology/EEB281_1_Vocalizations.htm
4- Lesley J. Rogers & Gisela Kaplan, Songs, Roars and Rituals, Communication In Birds, Mammals and Other Animals, USA, 2000, p. 81.

About The Author Under the pen name of Harun Yahya, Adnan Oktar has written some 250 works. His books contain a total of 46,000 pages and 31,500 illustrations. Of these books, 7,000 pages and 6,000 illustrations deal with the collapse of the Theory of Evolution. You can read, free of charge, all the books Adnan Oktar has written under the pen name Harun Yahya on these websites http://www.harunyahya.com